Human behavior Essays

Human behavior Essays Human behavior Essay Human behavior Essay After instinct theories were discredited, explanations for behavior shifted to needs. A need was defined as an internal state of disequilibrium or deficiency which has the capacity to trigger a behavioral response. The cause of the deficiency could be physiological, such as hunger; psychological, such as a need for power; or sociological, such as a need for social interaction. The presence of a need motivates an individual to action to restore a state of equilibrium, as shown . A basic assumption of all need theories is that when need deficiencies exist, individuals are motivated to action to satisfy them. One of the earliest theories of needs was the manifest need theory proposed by Henry A. Murray. Murray believed that needs are mostly learned rather than inherited and are activated by cues from the external environment. For example, an employee who has a high need for affiliation will pursue that need by associating with others only when the environmental conditions are appropriate. Only then would the need be manifest. When the need was not cued, the need was said to be latent or not activated. Murray identified a wide range of needs that people supposedly acquire to one degree or another through interaction with their environment. Murray first developed a list of fifteen needs that were classified as viscerogenic (primary) and psychogenic (secondary). The needs for food, water, sex, urination, defecation, and lactation, all associated with physiological functioning, are examples of Murrays viscerogenic needs. Murrays psychogenic needs include abasement, achievement, affiliation, aggression, autonomy, deference, dominance, and power. Murrays need categories attempted to focus on specific, relatively narrow need-related issues and a separate need was created for almost every human behavior. Murrays list of needs was not derived from empirical research but from his personal observations and clinical experience. Periodically he added additional needs to his list, and the length of the list increased with his career. Maslows need hierarchy Abraham Maslow was a clinical psychologist whose theory of motivation was part of a larger theory of human behavior. Maslow was a humanist who was deeply concerned about the dignity and worth of individuals. He frequently talked of the differences between healthy and unhealthy individuals, and believed that individuals had a positive capacity to improve the quality of their lives . His theory of behavior emerged from his clinical experiences as he was able to sift and integrate the ideas of other leading psychologist. Maslow formulated a hierarchy of five general needs. The term drive was first introduced by Woodworth (1918) to describe the reservoir of energy that impels an organism to behave in certain ways. While Woodworth intended the term to mean a general supply of energy within an organism, others soon modified this definition to refer to a host of specific energizers (such as hunger, thirst, sex) toward or away from certain goals. With the introduction of the concept of drive, it now became possible for psychologists to predict in advance-at least in theory-not only what goals an individual would strive toward but also the strength of the motivation toward such goals. A major theoretical advance in drive theory came from the work of Cannon in the early 1930s. Cannon (1939) introduced the concept of homeostasis to de- scribe a state of disequilibrium within an organism which existed whenever internal conditions deviated from their normal state. When such disequilibrium occurred (as when an organism felt hunger), the organism was motivated by internal drives to reduce the disequilibrium and to return to its normal state. Inherent in Cannons notion was the idea that organisms exist in a dynamic environment and that the determining motives for behavior constantly change, depending upon where the disequilibrium exists within the system. Thus, certain drives or motives move to the forefront and then, once satisfied, retreat while other paramount. This concept is also reflected in the works of Maslow. The first comprehensive-and experimentally specific- elaboration of drive was put forth by Hull. In his major work Principles of Behavior, published 1943, Hull set down a specific equation to explain an organisms impetus to Effort = Drive X Habit. Drive was defined by Hull as an energizing influence which determined the intensity of behavior, and which theoretically Habit was seen as the strength of relationship between past stimulus and response (S-R). Hall hypothesized that the resulting effort, or motivational force, was a multiplicative function of these two central variables. If we apply Hulls theory to an organization setting, the motivation to seek employment would be seen as a multiplicative function of the need for money (drive) and the strength of the feeling that been associated with the receipt of money in the past (habit). Later, Hull added an incentive variable to his equation. His later formulation thus read: Effort = Drive x Habit X Incentive. This incentive factor, added in large mea- sure in response to the attack by the cognitive theorists, was defined in terms of anticipatory reactions to future goals. Just as drive theory draws upon Thorndikes law of effect, so do modem reinforcement approaches (e. g. , Skinner, 1953). The difference is that the former theory emphasizes an internal state (i. e. , drive) as a necessary variable to take into account, while reinforcement theory does not. Rather, the reinforcement model places total emphasis on the consequences of behavior. Behavior initiated by the individual that produces an effect or consequence is called operant behavior (i. e. , the individual has operated on the environment), and the theory deals with the contingent relationships between this operant behavior and the pattern of consequences. It ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action. Thus, strictly speaking, reinforcement theory is not a theory of motivation because it does not concern itself with what energizes of initiates behavior.

Human Resources Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Human Resources Management - Essay Example Furthermore, if the members believe that a particular type of appraisal system will affect them positively whereas the new system may incorporate many different dimensions that may bring their weaknesses to the forefront, they may resist to the selection of a new appraisal system. Therefore there are a number of issues that affect the selection process. In order to design an effective appraisal system, it is important to consider a number of issues that may have an impact on the appraisal system. The management must make sure that the new system provides some quantitative measure of the employee’s performance to facilitate the process of evaluation (Robbins & Judge, 2004). First of all the human resource manager must decide on the criterion to be used for the appraisal mechanism. The ideal criteria would be the ability to deliver, to communicate effectively, quality of work, the ability to plan and set goals, to motivate, to lead and to complete the assigned tasks on time. Performance appraisals help organizations clarify expectations that it may have from the employees and build trust. Since it allows an organization to evaluate each employee’s contribution to the organization, it also helps in determining each employee’s strengths and weaknesses. The management can then assign tasks to employees based on their individual skills. Not only will this lead to better results but it will also lead to employee satisfaction because they will be doing what they are best at and enjoy the most (Daft, 2001). Also, it aids the organization in determining which employees are outstanding performers and hence it ties rewards, bonuses and other benefits with the employee performance and appraisal. Moreover, the appraisal mechanism allows the management to determine the level of satisfaction of employees. Through feedback after the appraisal, management can determine the problems faced by the

Safety in Aircraft Maintenance Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Safety in Aircraft Maintenance - Term Paper Example Because of the huge size of an aircraft and the various electronic, electrical and mechanical hazards associated with different parts of a plane, it becomes a norm to take preventive measures for the safety assurance of ground personnel’s. Safety needs to be addressed in many aspects of aircraft maintenance including aircraft engines, fuel systems, electrical wirings, Non destructive testing and assembly of parts. The preventive measures that need to be taken have also been highlighted. Everyday millions of passengers fly by air to reach their desired destinations. Air flight has become the fastest, convenient source of transportation and perhaps safer in some respects as compared to other modes. Together with the safety of passengers flying on an aircraft, the aviation industry is also concerned with the safety of those associated with the maintenance of aircrafts. Maintenance of aircrafts requires a lot of effort, together with appropriate measures of safety in handling high pressures, electronic equipments and surveying the engines. These tasks require large numbers of skilled engineers and technicians (Xavier, 2005). Apart from maintenance of frameworks and body, other maintenance safety precautions need to be taken while performing checks for leaks, structural damages and internal electrical systems (BTEC National) Maintenance of an aircraft is essential to ensure that the aircraft flies with the standards set for it and that no anomaly occurs in between its flight. Aircraft maintenance demands high technology and numerous people like mechanics, engineers and experts to ensure safety and efficiency of the plane. Aircraft maintenance safety is directed by some set standards and precautions which need to be taken by workers maintaining the plane. A â€Å"safety management system† established by the â€Å"International Civil Aviation Organization† works on this very aspect of safety in aircraft maintenance (Herrera, I.A & Hovde.

Intelligence Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Intelligence Studies - Essay Example territories that a government runs and have a permanent population.3 Nation-states are the most important actors in the international relations, but non-states actors strongly influence them. Hence, nation-states actors are entities or organizations, which a government runs.4 Some of the state actors include elected leaders, diplomats, bureaucrats, militaries among others. Non-state actors have a responsibility of checking state parties in all their actions. For instance, non-state actors such as NGOs which comprises of civil societies scrutinizes government policies to make sure they comply with provisions of human rights. Similarly, these non-state actors play the role of influencing policies and pressurizing the government to implement policies towards meeting its agenda.5 This is contrary to the role of the government, which has a role in making national policies and executing them for the benefit of the people.6 The two actors are different because of the role they play for the people. In the past decades, different civil societies have echoed their voices on the actions of state actors to influence change. For instance, civil societies echoed their voices when the death toll was rising in Egypt. As much as the Egyptian government was condoning and comfortable with the developments, non-state actors comprising on international civil societies opp osed the actions. This is an indication of the differences between the two actors. State actors have their media that influences and pass information regarding developments as well as the activities of the nations. This is normally biased, as various governments do not want to expose the wrongs to the public or in the international area. Therefore, most of the wrongdoing of the government goes unreported. Nearly every country has its national broadcasting, which the government influences to get favor. On the other hand, non-states actors such as media expose the nations concerning their wrong doings. They have

Anti Gun-Control Essay Example for Free

Anti Gun-Control Essay Generally speaking, gun control is recognized as the effort to restrict or limit the production, shipment and ownership of certain guns. Over time, the issue of gun ownership has become a staple of controversy and one of the most hotly contested social issues facing Americans. More often than not, where one falls on gun control depends largely on their political affiliation, their moral standards and their past experiences with firearms. According to some estimates, approximately 80 million homes in the U.  S. own 223 million guns. As is the case with most issues, gun control comes with a list of pros and cons. The people who staunchly support gun control believe their argument would protect society and save lives, while those opposing gun control believe the opposite. Here are some of the most well-known arguments against gun control: Potential for more crime – It’s long been suggested that having a gun allows would-be victims to protect themselves against crimes. Proponents of gun control often point to crime statistics as a sign that gun control would be a positive for society. However, people against gun control firmly believe that by having a gun, people could prevent many of those crimes from happening in the first place. Second amendment – The second amendment from The Bill of Rights grants private citizens the right to bear arms. Thus, people who stand firmly against gun control insist that no legislation, technically, should have the right to take away a citizens guns without first repealing the amendment in question. Bad history – History appears to support the pro-gun crowd. Throughout various political regimes, the one constant of a tyrannical government has been the disarming of citizens. Thomas Jefferson once famously said: â€Å"No man shall ever be debarred the use of arms. The strongest reason for the people to retain the right to keep and bear arms is, as a last resort, to protect themselves against the tyranny in government. †

Role of mTOR in Pain

Role of mTOR in Pain Juliette Lanskey Introduction Pain perception protects the human body from damage, yet when the underlying mechanisms are disrupted pain can become a debilitating condition. There are almost 10 million Britains that suffer from pain on a daily basis affecting not only their personal wellbeing and quality of life but also the economy. Back pain is an example of chronic pain and back pain alone costs the NHS around  £5billion per annum and it was reported that 4.9 million days are lost per year to british businesses (http://www.britishpainsociety.org/media_faq.htm). Unfortunately, understanding the mechanisms that go awry leading to pain that is more harmful than beneficial is proving challenging. As a result, there is a deficit in treatments available to control chronic pain despite much research. There is therefore an urgent requirement to understand the mechanisms underlying pain perception in order for the development of therapeutics to reduce the sufferings of humans and the economy. This dissertation shall focus on a potential target, the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), which recent research has highlighted as playing a significant role in chronic pain. Pain Pathways The processing of painful stimuli by the nervous system is termed nociception. Pain is nociception with additional psychological and emotional inputs. Noxious stimuli cause an action potential to run through a specialised set of neurons termed by Sherrington in 1906 as nociceptors; the pain neurons. Nociceptors have free nerve endings to detect noxious stimuli and can be classified into two main groups taking messages from the periphery to the central nervous system, called Aà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ and C fibres. Aà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ fibres are medium-diameter, mylinated neurons and this myelination and wider diameter allows rapid signal conduction. It is the Aà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ fibres that transmit the first, sharp, localised pain of an injury whilst C fibres which are small-diameter, unmyelinated neurons transmit slow, diffuse, secondary pain 2009CELLULARANDMOLECULAR. Hence Aà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ fibres are crucial in rapidly signalling an injury whilst the slow, burning pain from C fibres is important for protecti on during the healing period. These primary afferent nociceptors transfer messages from the periphery to the dorsal horn of the spinal chord. The dorsal horn is particularly important for processing and modulating noxious information. The dorsal horn is composed of six rexed laminae with transition zones approximately dividing different cell types. Indeed, nociceptors terminate in particular laminae. The majority of Aà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ fibres terminate densely in lamina I, though some do also terminate in lamina V. C fibres mainly terminate in laminae I and II, although there are also a few C fibre terminations in lamina V. Thus the majority of neurons which terminate in the superficial dorsal horn specifically respond to noxious stimuli while neurons terminating deeper in the dorsal horn tend to respond to innocurous touch (large diameter, rapid conducting Aà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢ fibres transmit such innocuous information CELLULARANDMECHANMECHS2009). It is within the dorsal horn that nociceptors synapse onto central projection neurons which transmit the noxious information up to the brain. The main central pathways run up to the brain via the thalamus or brainstem and terminate in areas such as the periaqueductal grey and the parabrachial nucleus REF. There are also descending pain pathways originating in the periaqueductal grey, rostral ventral medulla and coeruleus which pass signals to the dorsal horn modulating nociception. There are also modulating circuits in the dorsal horn composing of exitatory and inhibitory interneurons contacting further neurons in the spinal cord (Fields2006thesis). Nociceptors have a pseudo-unipolar morphology allowing bidirectional signalling. This means that nociceptors are able to transmit action potentials antidromically from the the central nervous system to the nociceptor terminals (Dubin, 2010). A result of central processing is increased sensitivity of the area at and around a site of tissue damage or inflammation (PUBHUNT). A chemical soup of cytokines and growth factors is released at the site of injury and causes an increase in the sensitivity of a subset of surrounding nociceptors. This means that these nociceptors have a reduced threshold for noxious stimuli (thus will now respond to less intense stimuli than before) and also an increased response to noxious stimuli. This sensitisation of neurons at the site of injury is called primary hyperalgesia. mTOR inhibitors do not affect primary hyperalgesia and thus it is unlikely mTOR is involved, however there is another phenomenon called secondary hyperalgesia which mTOR does seem to be involved in. Secondary hyperalgesia is when a set of neurons not directly at the site of injury but in the surrounding, undamaged area undergo an increase in sensitivity due to central processing (pubhunt). Recent studies have demonstrated t hat the mTOR plays a role in creating this sensitivity. Acute pain is the pain that follows immediately after an injury to protect the body from further damage and aid the process of healing but when pain exists for more than 3 months it is defined as chronic pain (SITETHESISMerskey and Bogduk, 1994; Russo and Brose, 1998). This chronic pain does not protect the body but rather hinders the quality of life. The pathology of chronic pain often consists of decreased pain thresholds and increased response to stimsuli; the nociceptors are more sensitive. Moreover, whilst nociceptors are generally silent, firing action potentials only when stimulated (dubin2010), in chronic pain, there is an increased tendency for spontaneous activity (JULIUSANDBASBAUMTHESIS). Altogether, chronic pain leads to allodynia (pain from a normally non-noxious stimulus), hyperalgesia (heightened sensitivity to noxious stimuli) and spontaneous pain. mtor The mammalian target of rapamycin is a regulator a number of cellular processes including synaptic plasticity, protein synthesis and cellular metabolism (XONCUETALTHESIS). It is a molecule belonging to the kinase family and forms two complexes with raptor; mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) and mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2). It is when part of these complexes that it administrates its cellular functions though much more is known about mTORC1 and so it is predominantly the role of mTORC1 in pain perception that this dissertation shall focus on. Signalling cascade There is a signalling cascade involving mTOR, the downstream targets of which lead to cellular activities resulting in the organisation of the cytoskeleton, the regulation of metabolism and cell survival (wullschlegerTHESIS). The signalling cascade is initiated by a signal such as a neurotransmitter acting on transmembrane receptors which activate phosphoinosital 3 kinase-AKT pathway. This results in the phosphorylation and thereby the activation of mTOR. Phosphorylated mTOR in turn phosphorylates the 4E-binding protein and in this phosphorylated state the 4E-binding protein is unable to bind and thus inhibit a protein called eIF4E. So when mTOR is activated it has the downstream affect of enabling eIF4E to associate with eIF4G, this is an essential step for initiating translation (TJ PRICE GERANTON). The fact that mTOR plays such a significant role in the regulation of translation is a hint of its importance in pain plasticity. Previously, it was thought by some that translation could only occur in the cell soma. However, others noted both the half-life of axonal proteins and the time it takes for a protein to travel down the length of the axon and concluded that the axoplasmic transport is too slow for protein synthesis only to occur in the cell soma HUNT. Indeed, following the discovery of ribosomes and ‘Golgi outposts’ in dendritic spines it is now believed that local protein synthesis at the sites of dendritic synapses plays a significant role in plasticity (2009REVIEW). Research demonstrates that chronic pain arises as a result of plastic changes that occur during persistent acute pain. During any pain there are noxious signals to the central nervous system enabling the pain to be perceived, if these signals persist it has been shown that this causes and maintains plastic changes that result in chronic pain. Indeed, it has been shown through advanced structural imaging methods that there are large scale alterations in the brain structure of sufferers of chronic pain CHRONICPAINPLASTICITY. There is relatively little research into the possibilities of targeting this pain plasticity to help patients cope with chronic pain in comparison with genetic studies. It is consequentially an exciting new avenue of exploration and the role of mTOR in pain plasticity is of particular interest. EARLIER As mTOR plays such a crucial role in cellular function it is unsurprising that mTOR dysfunction is believe to be involved in a number of maladies. The role of mTOR in cancer, diabetes and neurodegeneration is being explored and a number of mTOR inhibitors have already been tested for treating certain maladies. For example†¦..This has demonstrated that mTOR inhibitors are potential treatment regimes BUT THERE ARE SIDEEFFECTS MTOR THESIS MTOR SIGNALLING MTOR PLASTICITY see 2009reviewnociception and AMPKPG 6 is v good Dealing with pain MTOR AND RESEARCH thesis 2 Pain Pathways and Plasticity 3 The mammalian target of rapamycin 2007 Decreased Nociceptive Sensitization in Mice Lacking the Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein: Role of mGluR1/5 and mTOR – mTOR’s role in nociceptive synaptic plasticity through translation regulation; ‘ the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin inhibited formalin- and DHPG-induced nociception’ †¦. mTOR is a major regulator of protein synthesis for it controls the initiation of translation (PUBLISHEDHUNT2009). It is thought that by controlling protein translation it maintains the sensitivity of nociceptors following local injury. Targetting mTOR could reduce the secondary hyperalgesia that occurs from pain and thus help patients cope with pain†¦ 4 The mTOR signalling cascade Unicellular organisms that are sensitive to nutrient availability in their environment control translation via a rapamycin-sensitive translation pathway. This process is controlled by a protein kinase, TOR, which is blocked by rapamycin. Interestingly, neurons appear to have co-opted this evolutionarily conserved mechanism to control activity-dependent local translation. Mammalian TOR, or mTOR, is activated by neurotransmitter receptor signaling cascades and phosphorylates downstream factors that control translation. Hence, mTOR is intricately involved in synaptic plasticity in the CNS, a mechanism that is linked to its role in controlling translation in dendrites (Jaworskiet al., 2006). The major mechanism of mTOR-regulated translation is control of the initiation of cap-dependent translation (depicted in Fig 1) (Gingras et al., 2004). This occurs because one of the major targets of mTOR phosphorylation is the elongation associated factor 4E-BP (Gingraset al., 1999). 4E-BP binds c c ap-binding factor eIF4E and, when it is hypo-phosphorylated, inhibits the formation of the eIF4E/eIF4G elongation complex preventing translation. When 4E-BP is hyper-phosphorylated, 4E-BP dissociates from eIF4E allowing eIF4G binding and the initiation of cap-dependent translation. Recently a small molecule inhibitor of eIF4G binding to eIF4E was discovered (4EGI-1) and this molecule inhibits cap-dependent translation (Moerke et al., 2007). Hence, mTOR is crucial for regulating activity-dependent translation in neurons via its regulation of elongation factors (Bankoet al., 2006; Tanget al., 2002; Tsokaset al., 2007) and the mTOR pathway is amenable to specific pharmacological manipulation. 6 Experiments suggesting inhibiting mTOR could help control pain 2007 Decreased Nociceptive Sensitization in Mice Lacking the Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein: Role of mGluR1/5 and mTOR – mTOR’s role in nociceptive synaptic plasticity through translation regulation; ‘ the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin inhibited formalin- and DHPG-induced nociception’ NOT THAT RELEVANT – basically saying that because of mutation translation can’t happen properly†¦meaning mTOR has less control. However there is a subsection with rapamycin injections which does show decreased nociception with rapamycin 2011 – systemic inhibition of mTOR – mTOR regulation of nociceptive sensitivity; ‘ inhibiting the mTORC1 pathway systemically alleviated mechanical hypersensitivity in mouse models’ Good intro relating mTOR to chronic pain Local cutaneous intrathecal administration of rapamycin blocks activation of downstream targets of mTORC1 alleviating mechanical hypersensitivity – 21, 29 3 43 46 62 SHOULD PUT 1 OR 2 LOCAL EXPERIMENTS BEFORE THIS ONE If targeting mTORC1 signaling pathway has a potential thera- peutic application for controlling chronic pain, systemic rather than local administration (as has been used previously [21,29]) requires further investigation. Here we examined the effective- ness of temsirolimus (CCI-779), a clinically used rapamycin ester derivative, given systemically

Flowering Judas Essay -- Analysis, Katherine Anne Porter

Judas Iscariot, the disciple, hanged himself from a tree after betraying Jesus Christ and giving him a kiss. The tree in which Judas hanged himself is known as â€Å"Judas Tree† mainly found in Southern Europe and Western Asia. In the short story â€Å"Flowering Judas† written by Katherine Anne Porter the title is related to this religious event of betrayal, murder, and denial. The two main characters in this short story are Braggioni and Laura. Braggoni is a cruel, powerful leader of Marxist revolutionaries in and around Mexico City. Laura a beautiful American women, age 22, who took up residence in Mexico. The most known theme in Porter’s short story â€Å"Flowering Judas† is betrayal. Laura, Braggioni, Braggioni’s wife, and Eugenio are all guilty of betrayal. Laura betrayals love in her life. By rejecting all men who intend to reach for her heart. Laura pictures Braggioni a â€Å"revolutionist would be lean, animated by heroic faith, a vessel of abstract virtues† (Porter p.1692). Picturing a revolutionist as a Christ figure. Laura betrays Braggioni by leading him to believe that she is interested in him. â€Å"She knows what Braggioni would offer her, and she must resist tenaciously without appearing to resist† (Porter p. 1692). Laura does not intend to tell Bragioni to vanish from her life. Laura fears that she might mess with his pride and knows that Braggioni is powerful that it can lead in to hurting her. Porter states â€Å"Braggioni is cruel to every one, for it is dangerous to offend him, and nobody has this courage† (p. 1992). Not only is Laura betraying Braggioni but Braggioni’s wife as well. Laura is committing adultery by being leading false judgment on a married man, and she can cause a separation of somebody else’s marriage. A nineteen ye... ...ura declares that she has taken the narcotics to Eugenio. In the last supper where Jesus Christ presented his disciples with bread as his body and wine as his blood; they were to eat and drink of it in memory of him and accepting him as their savior. In the end of the story Porter presents to us a related event in a dream that Laura has with Eugenio. Eugenio says to Laura in the dream â€Å"Then eat these flowers, poor prisoner,† and from a Judas tree he stripped the warm bleeding flowers, and held them to her lips (p.1700). Here Porter mentions Judas as to referring to the disciple that betrayed Jesus. By Laura accepting and eating the bleeding leave from Eugenio, ripped from the Judas tree, she is accepting the contribution in his murder. Just as a Christian’s accept Jesus on Sundays by Holly Communion. Laura has betrayed Eugenio by participating in his murder.